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Industrial automation and robot arms

Collaborative Robots / Cobots

Industrial robot arms used in applications designed for collaborative operation, with safety functions that must be validated for the complete task.

Quick decision summary

What to know before reading the full guide

Plain definition

Collaborative robots are industrial robots intended for applications where people and robots may share a workspace under defined collaborative operating conditions. The complete application must be risk assessed and integrated with appropriate safeguards; a robot marketed as a cobot is not automatically safe for every tool, payload, speed, or process.

Example tasks

machine tending; screwdriving and light assembly; pick and place

Main deployment risk

Collaborative speed or force limits can make the final cycle slower than a fenced industrial robot for the same task.

Measure in a pilot

good parts per hour, median and 95th-percentile cycle time, interventions per 100 cycles, changeover time between products

Research brief

Updated October 11, 2026

Overview

Deployment and reconfiguration depend on the complete workcell. The arm alone does not make an application safe. Payload, reach, end-effector mass, speed, contact geometry, sharp or hot process hazards, fixtures, workpiece inertia, human access, and safety functions all change the risk. A useful cobot guide therefore starts with the task and risk assessment, then checks cycle time, payload, reach, repeatability, tool ecosystem, interfaces, and changeover cost.

The main deployment problem is balancing productivity and human access. A robot may meet a payload specification but miss the required cycle time once safety speed limits, tool mass, approach distances, machine doors, operator interaction, and recovery are included. Pilot measurements should therefore use good parts per hour and interventions in the final cell layout, not free-space robot speed.

Cobot buyer guide

A collaborative arm does not make the complete application collaborative

Select the application first. A sharp screwdriver, hot weld, heavy part, crushing fixture, or high-inertia tool can require additional safeguarding even when the arm has force-limiting features.

Collaborative robot operating concepts
Collaborative conceptWhat it means in the application
Safety-rated monitored stopRobot motion stops while a person is in the collaborative workspace under the validated application.
Hand guidingOperator intentionally guides the robot through a designed hand-guiding interface and safety concept.
Speed & separation monitoringRobot speed or motion changes as separation from a person decreases, using safety-rated sensing and logic.
Power & force limitingRobot/application limits contact forces and pressures within the risk-assessed operating conditions.

Seven checks before requesting a quote

01payload including tool, adapters, cables, and workpiece
02reach plus wrist moment and center of gravity
03cycle time under validated safety limits
04end-effector and process hazards
05machine/PLC/fieldbus interfaces
06changeover and recovery time
07service, spares, and calibration procedure

How it works

The robot controller uses joint position sensing and often torque or current sensing to regulate motion and detect abnormal contact. Depending on the application, collaborative operation can use a safety-rated monitored stop, hand guiding, speed and separation monitoring, or power and force limiting. Vision, force/torque sensors, grippers, PLCs, and machine interfaces then execute the production task while safety-related functions enforce validated limits.

Real world applications

  • machine tending
  • screwdriving and light assembly
  • pick and place
  • packaging and palletizing
  • inspection and metrology loading
  • dispensing and gluing
  • sanding and polishing
  • welding where the process hazards are separately safeguarded

Key technologies

  • robot kinematics and servo control
  • safety-rated monitored stop
  • hand guiding
  • speed and separation monitoring
  • power and force limiting
  • force-torque control
  • vision guidance
  • quick-change end effectors
  • PLC and machine integration

Sensors commonly used

  • joint encoders
  • motor current or torque sensing
  • 6-axis force-torque sensors
  • RGB and depth cameras
  • proximity sensors
  • safety laser scanners
  • gripper position or force sensors
  • process-specific inspection sensors

Actuators or movement system

  • multi-axis electric robot joints
  • electric or pneumatic grippers
  • vacuum end effectors
  • servo screwdrivers
  • welding or dispensing tools
  • automatic tool changers
  • force-controlled process tools

AI and software used

  • robot programming and waypoint tools
  • inverse kinematics and trajectory generation
  • force control
  • machine vision
  • safety configuration
  • PLC and fieldbus integration
  • recipe and changeover management
  • production logging and OEE integration

Current limitations

  • Collaborative speed or force limits can make the final cycle slower than a fenced industrial robot for the same task.
  • The end effector, workpiece, fixture, process, and environment can introduce hazards that the robot arm's safety functions do not remove.
  • Payload must include the tool, adapters, cables, and workpiece; wrist moment and center-of-gravity limits can matter before nominal payload is reached.
  • Machine doors, PLC handshakes, part presentation, and operator loading often dominate cycle time even when robot motion is fast.
  • Frequent manual recovery or poorly designed changeovers can erase expected labor savings.

Popular examples and reference styles

  • machine-tending cobot cells
  • collaborative screwdriving stations
  • vision-guided pick-and-place cobots
  • compact palletizing systems
  • force-controlled sanding and polishing cells
  • collaborative inspection and test stations

Failure modes

01payload or center-of-gravity limit exceeded after tooling is added

02nuisance safety stops from poor cell layout or separation settings

03gripper or process-tool failure

04camera or tool calibration drift

05machine door or PLC handshake timeout

06part presentation outside the taught tolerance

07operator restart sequence creates recurring downtime

08process hazard incorrectly treated as safe because the arm is marketed as collaborative

Technical bottlenecks

01maintaining useful cycle time under validated collaborative limits

02fast and auditable application risk assessment

03simpler integration across tools, cameras, PLCs, and safety systems

04robust changeover without expert reprogramming

05force and vision control that remain stable across part variation

06clear benchmarking of productivity after human interaction and recovery time are included

Safety, ethics, and responsible use

Industrial robot safety is application-specific. ISO 10218-1:2025 addresses industrial robots, while ISO 10218-2:2025 addresses integration of industrial robot applications and cells. ISO/TS 15066:2016 supplements collaborative operation guidance and remains published while a replacement work item is under development. Integrators should treat the robot, end effector, workpiece, process, fixtures, other machines, and human access as one risk-assessed system.

Official sources and further reading

The sources cover named systems and reference documents. The proposed checks do not report hands-on results. Capabilities depend on the chosen configuration and operating conditions.

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